APPLICATION: MAKING SOAP

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & MATHEMATICS

UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

SBK3013

PRINCIPLE IN BIOCHEMISTRY

LABORATORY PROJECT 4

APPLICATION: MAKING SOAP

NAME	MATRIC NO.
MUHAMMAD FARIS BIN ISMAIL SAZEMI	D20141067089
MAYURIE PHUTHARANT A/P SURIN	D20141067078
NUR AFIQAH SYAHMINA BT MOHD KAMAL	D20141067091

GROUP: A

LECTURER’S NAME: DR. ROSMILAH MISNAN

INSTRUCTOR NAME: NUR ATIEKAH BT AZAHARI

INTRODUCTION

The ancients Egyptian around 1550 BC combined both animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to produce a soap-like substance. They used this mixture for treating sores, skin diseases as well as washing. Nowadays soaps are known as carboxylate salts with a very long hydrocarbon chains. Soap can be made from the base hydrolysis of a fat or oil. This process is called saponification, and the reaction has been known for centuries. Traditionally, soaps were made from animal fat and sodium hydroxide. Nowadays, soap can be made from different kind of oil and fats. Addition of fragrance and colour into the soap has produce varieties of soap.  In this experiment, we will be using different kind of oils and fat in order to make soap.

MATERIAL

60 ml of 6 M NaOH solution

17.5 g of fat (sunflower oil, corn oil, palm oil, margarine, butter)

75 ml distilled water

300 ml hot sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.

100 ml graduated cylinder

400 ml beaker

250 ml beaker

Stirring rod

Colour and fragrance

PROCEDURE

1.      40 ml of the 6 M NaOH and 17.5 g fat was placed into 250 ml beaker.

2.      The solution was heated to boil over the lowest flame that will sustain the boiling process. The mixture was stirred to avoid spattering.

3.      The mixture was boiling and stirring for 20 minutes, or until the water in the mixture has been evaporated.

4.      The remaining 20 ml of NaOH was added into the mixture and continues boiling the solution for 20 minutes or until most of the water was boiled off. Cannot let the mixture to boil dry.

5.      Let the crude soap to cool and a waxy solid should be form. Then 12.5 ml of distilled water and 50 ml of hot and saturated NaCl solution was added into the mixture.

6.      The mixture was stirred and the lump was breaking up using the stirring rod.

7.      The wash solution was decant by pouring it through a wire screen, to help trap the small soap particles.

8.      The wash process was repeated twice. After that, for the final washing the soap was been pressed between the two sheets of paper towelling to expel as much water as possible.

RESULT

Substance	Soap
Sunflower oil
Corn oil
Palm oil
Margarine
Butter

  

DISCUSSION

Soaps and detergent are essential to personal and public health. By using soap, it can remove germs, dirt and other contaminants and it also help us to stay healthy. It also make our surrounding more pleasant because by using soap, it will remove bad odour from our body. Basically, soap are made from fats and oils or their fatty acids. The fatty acids can be divided further into 2 groups that is saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The saturated fatty acid contain only carbon-carbon single bonds meanwhile for the unsaturated fatty acids it contain multiple bonds between the carbon-carbon atom. Examples for saturated fatty acid is stearic acid and palmitic acid, meanwhile for the unsaturated fatty acids, examples are oleic acid.

Process that is involved in this soap-making is saponification. The process which the triglycerides reacted with sodium or potassium hydroxide to produce glycerol and fatty acid salt, ‘called soap’. When Sodium Hydroxide is used, a hard soap will be produced, meanwhile, when the potassium hydroxide is used, the resulting products is soft soap. Lipids that contain fatty acid ester linkages can undergo hydrolysis. This reaction is catalysed by a strong acid or base. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of the fatty acid esters.

For example, when there is a chemical reaction between any fat and sodium hydroxide, it is called as saponification reaction. The chemical equation for the saponification process are as follows:

Triglyceride + sodium hydroxide (or potassium hydroxide) → glycerol + 3 soap molecules

The soap molecules has two parts that is hydrophilic head (polar part), and hydrophobic tails (non-polar part). The hydrophobic tails has water repelling properties meanwhile, the hydrophilic head has water loving properties.

There are two types of soap namely hard soap, and soft soap. The sodium salt of long chain fatty acid is known as hard soap. It is difficult to dissolve in water. It is used as laundry soap. The potassium salt of long chain fatty acid is known as soft soap, as it produces more lather. It is used as toilet soap and shaving soap. Since soaps have free alkali ions, they are alkaline in nature. Hence, the soap solutions are slippery to the touch.

QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. What is the relationship between saponification and phase (liquid / solid) of a triglyceride?

Saponification triglyceride is actually the reaction of triglycerides when they are turned into soap. Soap is produced when triglycerides react with a base like sodium. In technical terms, saponification involves base that is hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters of fatty acids, to form the sodium salt of a carboxylate. In addition to soap, such traditional saponification processes produces glycerol. "Saponifiable substances" are those that can be converted into soap. Depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) gives "hard soap", whereas, when potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used, a soft soap is formed.

2. Why do triglycerides with longer fatty acids have a lower saponification number than those with shorter fatty acids?

The triglycerides with longer fatty acid have lower saponification because the amount of KOH needed to break down the hydrolysis process is higher since the triglycerides have long chain of fatty acid. So, the titration shown the lower amount of KOH that react with HCL. The KOH left is unreacted KOH from the hydrolysis process.

3. Why is the difference in the molar amount of HCl used to neutralize the control and the amount of HCl used to neutralize the sample equivalent to the molar amount of KOH used to saponify the test sample?

In the control sample which is filled with KOH then titrated with the HCL, it will need a relatively large amount of HCL to neutralize it’s to form salt and water compare with the test sample. This is because, in the control, all of the HCL is needed to neutralize the KOH. Meanwhile, in the control sample, some KOH is used to hydrolyse the fatty acids while some is neutralized by HCl. Therefore, more HCl is utilized in the blank test than in the sample test.

4. Why do soaps disperse grease?

Grease are non-polar compounds, meanwhile water are polar molecules. The non-polar compounds cannot dissolve in the polar compound. This means that, grease cannot dissolve in the water if they are mixed. However, soap can mix with both water and the grease. This is because, the soaps has two different end that is hydrophilic head, and hydrophobic tails. The hydrophilic head (water-loving part) will attract the water molecules. Meanwhile, the hydrophobic tails (water-hating part) will attract to the grease. When greasy dirt is mixed with the soapy water, the soap molecules will arrange themselves into tiny clusters namely micelles. The hydrophilic head sticks to the water, forming the outer surface of the micelles. The hydrophobic tails will bind to the grease and the grease will trapped in the centre due to its nature that it cannot make contact with the water. With the oil tucked safely in the centre, the micelle is soluble in water. As the soapy water is rinsed away, the greasy dirt goes along with it.

CONCLUSION

In this experiment, we successfully produced soap by using the sunflower oil. Soap is one of the product produced by undergo the saponification reaction between sunflower oil and heated sodium hydroxide.

REFERENCES

Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles (6th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company

David, A. K. (2000). The science of soaps and detergents. Retrieved on May 1^st, 2017 from          http://www.chymist.com/Soap%20and%20detergent.pdf

Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Fromm, H. J.&  Hargrove, M. (2012). Essentials of Biochemistry. Pearson Education

VITAMIN C AND MAGIC WRITING

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & MATHEMATICS

UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

SBK3013

PRINCIPLE IN BIOCHEMISTRY

LABORATORY PROJECT 3:

MEASURING VITAMIN C USING STARCH-IODINE TEST AND MAGIC WRITING

NAME	MATRIC NO.
MUHAMMAD FARIS BIN ISMAIL SAZEMI	D20141067089
MAYURIE PHUTHARANT A/P SURIN	D20141067078
NUR AFIQAH SYAHMINA BT MOHD KAMAL	D20141067091

GROUP: A

LECTURER’S NAME: DR. ROSMILAH MISNAN

INSTRUCTOR NAME: NUR ATIEKAH BT AZAHARI

INTRODUCTION

Experiment conducted to measure the amount of vitamin C in different type of foods. The amount of vitamin C been measured to know how many vitamin C we will use in the chemical proses in our body. The vitamin C involved in our cell oxidation-reduction reaction in body. For this experiment we use iodine to test the present of vitamin C. The vitamin C will be react with iodine solution. When there are no more vitamin C in the solution, the iodine will react with starch and produced bluish-black colour.

MATERIAL & PROCEDURE

(1) Measuring Vitamin C using starch-iodine test.

1. The food material is chopped and placed into blender.

2. 100 ml of distilled water is added to the blender.

3. The material is blended using the highest speed until thoroughly ground.

4. The ground extract is strained

5. 30 ml of the strained extract is measured into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask or beaker.

      Measuring vitamin C in the standard and food sample:

i. 30 mL of the Vitamin C Standard placed in a 250 ml flask or beaker.

ii. 2 drops of the 0.1 M HCl is added to the flask.

iii. 5 ml of the starch solution is added to the flask.

iv. Burette is filled with the iodine solution.

v. The initial volume reading is recorded.

vi. The iodine solution is added in 1 ml increments to the flask while swirling the flask.

vii. Iodine is added until the solution stays blue-black for 15 seconds.

viii. The volume is recorded reading on the burette.

ix. Step i to viii is repeated to measure the vitamin C in the food sample.

x. The amount of Vitamin C in the food sample is calculated using this formula:

Amount of Vitamin C in food sample =  (Amount of Vitamin C in standard / volume of iodine used in standard) x Volume of iodine used in food sample

(2) Magic writing

STEP A: IODINE SOLUTION

1. 100 ml water is poured into a 500ml-beaker.

2. 10 ml of Iodine is added to the water and stir.

STEP B:

1. A section is cut from the notebook paper.

2. The paper must fit inside a 500ml-beaker

STEP C: VITAMIN C SOLUTION

1. The juice of the lemon/lime is squeeze into another beaker

STEP D:

1. The art brush is dip into the lemon/lime juice

2. A message is wrote on the piece of paper.

3. The juice is allowed to dry on the paper.

4. The paper is submerged in the iodine solution in the bowl.

RESULT

Measuring Vitamin C using starch-iodine test.

Vitamin C standard:

The amount of iodine used = 13.7 mL, 15.4 mL

Average amount of iodine used  =(13.7 mL += 15.4 mL) / 2

                                                     =  14.55 mL

Vitamin C in food sample for treated and untreated:

Food Sample	Amount of Iodine used (mL)
	Treated	Untreated
Broccoli extract	7.2	12
Papaya extract	11	15.5
Cooked rice	-	2.0
Orange extract	15	16.5
Chrysanthemum extract	12	33.5
Chrysanthemum (packet drink)	-	0.5

Food Sample	Amount of Vitamin C (In 100 g)
	Treated	Untreated
Broccoli extract	0.66	1.07
Papaya extract	1.00	1.40
Cooked rice	-	0.18
Orange extract	1.33	1.53
Chrysanthemum extract	1.07	3.07
Chrysanthemum (packet drink)	-	0.05

Standard Vitamin C before titration

Standard Vitamin C after titration

Untreated food sample :

Papaya extract before titration

Papaya extract after titration

Broccoli extract before titration

Broccoli extract after titration

Chrysanthemum in can (drink sample from home) before titration

Chrysanthemum in can(drink sample from home) after titration

Treated food sample:

Food sample before treated with heat for 5 minutes

Food sample after treated with heat for 5 minutes

Calculation:

Amount of Vitamin C in food sample =  (Amount of Vitamin C in standard / volume of iodine used in standard) x Volume of iodine used in food sample. 

For untreated orange extract ; = (0.2/14.55) x 16.5 mL = 0.23 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100) x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.23 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1.53 Vitamin C	For treated orange extract; = (0.2/14.55) x 15 mL = 0.20 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100) x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.20 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1.33 Vitamin C
For untreated papaya extract ; = (0.2/14.55) x 15.5 mL = 0.21 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.21 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1.4 Vitamin C	For treated papaya extract ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 11 mL = 0.15 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.15 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1 Vitamin C
For untreated broccoli extract ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 12 mL = 0.16 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.16 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1.07 Vitamin C	For treated broccoli extract ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 7.2 mL = 0.099 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.099 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 0.66 Vitamin C
For untreated cooked rice ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 2.0 mL = 0.027 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.027 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 0.18 Vitamin C
For untreated Chrysanthemum extract; = (0.2/14.55)  x 33.5 mL = 0.46 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.46 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 3.07 Vitamin C	For treated Chrysanthemum extract ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 12 mL = 0.16 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.16 Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 1.07 Vitamin C
For untreated Chrysanthemum in packet (food sample from home) ; = (0.2/14.55)  x 0.5 mL = 0.00687 mg/mL Vitamin C in food sample Extract = 50 g food sample + 100 mL H2O In 30 mL extract = (50/100)  x 30 = 15 g orange In 15 g orange = 0.00687Vitamin C In 100 g orange = 0.05 Vitamin C

  

Magic writing

Name	Before	After
FARIS
MAYURI
SYAHMINA

DISCUSSION

Untreated juices

For juices of untreated Broccoli extract, Papaya extract, Cooked rice, Orange extract ,Chrysanthemum extract and Chrysanthemun juice (from packet drink), we obtained that Chrysanthemun extract has the highest amount of vitamin C which is 3.07mg (per 100g). Theoretically, Chrysanthemun only have low amount of Vitamin C which is 1.4mg (per 100g). Secondly, Orange extract has lower amount of vitamin C compared to Chrysanthemun extract which is 1.33 mg.  Theoretically the amount of vitamin C in orange are 53.2mg (per 100g). The value obtained differ from the theoretical value due to some errors. Next, the amount of vitamin C obtained in papaya are 1.40mg compared to theoretically which is 60.9mg. Next, the amount of vitamin C extract for broccoli extract is 1.07 mg/ml. Theoretically, broccoli have highest amount of vit C (per 100g) which is 89.2mg, higher than orange and papaya. But in our experiment the value obtained for broccoli extract are less than the amount of vitamin C in orange and papaya. Cooked rice and chrysanthemum (packet drink) are among the lowest amount of vitamin C which is 0.18mg and 0.05mg respectively. Theoretically both don’t have any vitamin C content in them. The presence of vitamin C in them in this experiment might be due to some technical errors.

The value obtained are quite differ from theoretically value due to some errors. First and foremost, the extract obtained might have been contaminated due to being left to the environment. Furthermore, the juices extract are not being handle with appropriate materials for example using bare hands to squeeze for the juices without wearing gloves. Next is, the materials are not cleansed thoroughly before used. Last but not least, we are using the same apparatus for all the extract, hence they might mix with each other can cause some errors to the experiment.

Treated juices.

Treated orange have lower amount of vitamin C which is 1.33mg compared to untreated orange. The amount of Vitamin C is lower in treated Chrysanthemun extract which is 1.07mg compared to treated Chrysanthemun extract. This is followed by papaya extract and broccoli extract which both also have lower amount of vitamin C 1.00mg and 0.66mg respectively compared to their untreated juices. The amount of Vitamin C in treated juices is lower because high heat can reduce the vitamin C contents. This is because the vitamin might leached out of the food into the water when we put the extract into water bath for 5 minutes, and then degraded by the heat. Heat also can cause the vitamin C to be oxidized.

QUESTION AND ANSWER

1.                  In our experiment, Chrysanthemun has the highest amount of vitamin C. Theoretically, citrus juices will have most amount of Vitamin C.

2.                  The drinks had 0 amount of Vitamin C in the labels but in our experiment we obtained a little amount of Vitamin C.

3.                  Red peppers had the most vitamin C with is 242.5mg (per 100g).

4.                  Citrus families had the most Vitamin C.

5.                  The plants that we usually eat have Vitamin C for example, broccoli.

6.                  Heat does affect Vitamin C content in food.

7.                  Heat decreases the amount of Vitamin C levels.

8.                  Steaming is recommended cooking methods to preserve vitamin in foods.

9.                  We can get more vitamins from our meals by eat locally grown food after it being picked up.

CONCLUSION

As the conclusion, untreated Chrysanthemum extract has the higher amount of Vitamin C which is 3.07 in 100 g. While the untreated rice has the lower amount of Vitamin C with only 0.18 in 100 g.

REFERENCES

Ronald Eitenmiller, Lin Ye, W.O. Landen, Jr. 2008. Vitamin analysis for the health and food
             sciences. 2^nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

N. A. Khan and K. N. Singh. 2014. Laboratory manual of biochemistry. New Delhi: Daya
             Pub. House

Moran, Laurence A., Horton, H. Robert, Scrimegeour, K. G. and Perry, Marc. 2014. Principle in
             Biochemistry. 5^th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.